附註：為了便於閱讀，對部分地名、人名、專有名詞和單字加註其中文翻譯。 ================================================================================================== §§ The First Sino-Japanese War, August 1, 1894 - April 17, 1895
❖ Overview of the Sino-Japanese War
▲ Battle of Pyongyang (平壤之戰)
The First Sino-Japanese War was fought between Qing China and Meiji Japan officially from Aug 1, 1894 to April 17, 1895 (fighting broke out on July 25, 1894) over control of Korea, which was a Chinese tribute state(朝貢國) . Many foreign observers expected China to win, as its navy was stronger on paper with its ironclad battleships(鐵殼戰艦) and the Chinese army was assumed to be massive(量大的). While China had modernized somewhat under the Self Strengthening Movement(自強運動，洋務運動), it could not match the rapid progress made in Japan under the Meiji Restoration(明治維新).
▲ Korea 1890s (1890年代的韓國)
The war started in the Seoul(首爾) area of modern South Korea. Both China and Japan had the right to send troops to Korea under the Tientsin Convention(天津公約) of 1885. A rebellion(叛亂) broke out in Korea in 1894, known as the Tonghak Rebellion(東學黨之亂). Japan used this as a pretext(藉口) to try to start a war with China in Korea, which China and Japan had been ruling as a co-protectorate(受保護領地), with China playing the leading role. Soon, both China and Japan had troops in Korea, and this explosive situation soon led to conflict. Japan felt it was strong enough at this point to challenge China in a war over Korea.
▲ Battle of the Yalu (黃海海戰)
After losing a minor battle at Seonghwan(成歡) near Seoul, the main Chinese force concentrated(集結) in Pyongyang(平壤) and was defeated, despite(盡管) outnumbering(數量多於) the Japanese. The following naval Battle of the Yalu was one of the first modern naval battles in history with ironclad ships, quick-fire guns(速射炮) and torpedoes(魚雷) used. The Chinese lost five ships and retreated(撤退) to Port Arthur(旅順港), then to Wei Hai(威海衛), never to threaten(威脅) the Japanese in the Yellow Sea again. After the defeat in Pyongyang, there was no more Chinese resistance in Korea and two Japanese armies invaded(侵入) Manchuria(滿州), with Port Arthur(旅順口), Newchang(牛庄), Yinkou(營口) being taken. While taking Port Arthur, the Japanese found the mutilated(嚴重殘缺不全的) remains of Japanese prisoners(俘虜) and went on a frenzy(狂暴) of killing in Port Arthur in which almost all of the remaining Chinese population(人口,居民) of the city was massacred(大屠殺), known as the Port Arthur Massacre(旅順大屠殺).
The Beiyang Navy(北洋艦隊) base at Wei Hai(威海衛) fell to the Japanese in early 1895 and the ships in the Chinese Beiyang Fleet(艦隊) were sunk(擊沉) or captured, while the Japanese lost no major ships.
▲ Battle of WeiHai (威海衛之戰)
▲ Watch The Battle of the Yalu River, a Chinese movie about the Sino-Japanese War with English subtitles
In Manchuria, Qing forces under General Sung Qing(宋慶) battled furiously to recover Hai Cheng(海城), even though the Japanese were outnumbered 60,000 to 25,000, they managed to hold the city inflicting(遭受) heavy loses Japan was poised for a two prong(方面) attack on Beijing from Manchuria and Shandong(山東), leading the Chinese to seek peace.
▲ Li Hong-zhang, the viceroy(總督) of Chili(直隸) (Hebei)(河北) drilled(操練) his armies in western techniques and stressed officer-soldier ties, Confucian values(儒家價值觀) and tried to modernize the Chinese forces against the foreign menace(威脅).
The Treaty of Shimonoseki(馬關條約) was signed on 17 April 17,1895. China recognized the independence of Korea and ceded(割讓) the strategic(戰略的) Liaodong Peninsula(遼東半島) (also called the `Regent`s Sword`(攝政王之劍) in many books of the period) with Port Arthur, Taiwan and the Pescadores (Peng Hu)(澎湖) Islands to Japan and was to pay an indemnity(賠償) of 263,176,701 taels(兩) of silver (about 150 million U.S.dollars) , most favored nation(最惠國) trade status and opening of Shashi(沙市), Chungking(重慶), Soochow(蘇州) and Hangzhou(杭州) to Japanese trade. Japanese could move freely in the interior(內地) and set up businesses. The Japanese war indemnity(賠償) and loans(貸款) to finance the war of almost 120 million taels(兩) to finance(為…供給資金) the war were a large drain(耗盡) on the economy.
During the peace negotiations(和議), there was an assassination(暗殺) attempt against Li Hong-zhang(李鴻章), the Chinese plenipotentiary(全權代表) and the Japanese emperor Meiji declared an unconditional armistice(停戰) on March 29, 1895. Japanese guilt over(內疚) this led the Japanese to accept more moderate(溫和的) concessions(特許權,讓步)(they had wanted to occupy Shan-hai-kwan(山海關), Taku(大沽), and Tien-tsin(Tianjin)(天津) and some coastal forts(要塞,堡壘) as well).
▲ Russo-Japanese War monument(日俄戰爭紀念碑) at Port Arthur, site of a battle in the Sino-Japanese War as well. Shortly after the treaty was signed, Russia, France and Germany united under the Triple Intervention(三國干涉) and threatened(威脅) war with Japan if it did not withdraw(撤退) from Port Arthur, which it did in the face of this triple threat. Shortly afterward, Russia occupied Port Arthur.
▲ Japanese Sino-Japanese War Medal (日本的日清戰爭勳章)
The major consequences(後果,影響) of the war were that Japan was recognized as a rising world power, increased xenophobia(對外國人的憎惡) in China leading to the Boxer Rebellion(義和團之亂) in 1899 and Korea becoming a colony(殖民地) of Japan.The success of the armed forces lead to increasing power of the militarists(軍國主義者) in Japan.
Estimates(估計) of Japanese killed very from 800 to almost 14,000. Cholera(霍亂) killed more Japanese troops than battle, and Japanese troops brought the disease home, which killed and estimated 30,000. Chinese losses are estimated to be 35,000 killed or wounded(受傷).
